9 Cylinder Radial Air Cooled Aircraft Engine Drawings

Reciprocating engine with cylinders arranged radially from a single crankshaft

This commodity is about the conventional radial engine with fixed cylinders and a revolving crankshaft. For the otherwise similar engine with a rotating crankcase, see rotary engine.

The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which the cylinders "radiate" outward from a central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel. Information technology resembles a stylized star when viewed from the front, and is chosen a "star engine" in some other languages.

The radial configuration was normally used for aircraft engines before gas turbine engines became predominant.

Engine operation [edit]

Moving parts showing operation of a typical small 5 cylinder radial.
Pistons are in gold and valves in pinkish,
master rod and counterbalance pale royal,
slaved connecting rods in blueish,
and timing ring and cams in crimson.

Since the axes of the cylinders are coplanar, the connecting rods cannot all be directly fastened to the crankshaft unless mechanically circuitous forked connecting rods are used, none of which have been successful. Instead, the pistons are continued to the crankshaft with a master-and-articulating-rod associates. One piston, the uppermost 1 in the animation, has a master rod with a direct attachment to the crankshaft. The remaining pistons pin their connecting rods' attachments to rings around the edge of the chief rod. Extra "rows" of radial cylinders tin be added in lodge to increase the capacity of the engine without calculation to its diameter.

Four-stroke radials have an odd number of cylinders per row, then that a consistent every-other-piston firing lodge tin can be maintained, providing smooth performance. For example, on a five-cylinder engine the firing order is one, 3, 5, 2, iv, and dorsum to cylinder 1. Moreover, this always leaves a ane-piston gap between the piston on its combustion stroke and the piston on compression. The active stroke directly helps compress the adjacent cylinder to fire, making the motion more uniform. If an even number of cylinders were used, an as timed firing cycle would not be feasible.^[i] The prototype radial Zoche aero-diesels (below) have an even number of cylinders, either iv or eight; but this is not problematic, because they are ii-stroke engines, with twice the number of power strokes as a four-stroke engine per crankshaft rotation.^[2]

Equally with most four-strokes, the crankshaft takes two revolutions to complete the 4 strokes of each piston (intake, compression, combustion, exhaust). The camshaft ring is geared to spin slower and in the opposite direction to the crankshaft. Its cam lobes are placed in two rows; one for the intake valves and one for the exhaust valves. The radial engine normally uses fewer cam lobes than other types. For example, in the engine in the animated illustration, iv cam lobes serve all 10 valves beyond the v cylinders, whereas x would be required for a typical inline engine with the same number of cylinders and valves.

Most radial engines use overhead poppet valves driven by pushrods and lifters on a cam plate which is concentric with the crankshaft, with a few smaller radials, like the Kinner B-v and Russian Shvetsov Grand-11, using individual camshafts within the crankcase for each cylinder. A few engines employ sleeve valves such as the xiv-cylinder Bristol Hercules and the eighteen-cylinder Bristol Centaurus, which are quieter and smoother running only crave much tighter manufacturing tolerances.^{[ commendation needed ]}

History [edit]

Shipping [edit]

C. One thousand. Manly constructed a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine in 1901, a conversion of one of Stephen Balzer's rotary engines, for Langley's Airdrome aircraft. Manly's engine produced 52 hp (39 kW) at 950 rpm.^[3]

In 1903–1904 Jacob Ellehammer used his experience constructing motorcycles to build the world's first air-cooled radial engine, a 3-cylinder engine which he used as the basis for a more powerful five-cylinder model in 1907. This was installed in his triplane and made a number of curt gratis-flight hops.^[4]

Some other early radial engine was the three-cylinder Anzani, originally built as a W3 "fan" configuration, one of which powered Louis Blériot'south Blériot XI across the English language Channel. Before 1914, Alessandro Anzani had adult radial engines ranging from 3 cylinders (spaced 120° apart) — early enough to have been used on a few French-congenital examples of the famous Blériot 11 from the original Blériot factory — to a massive 20-cylinder engine of 200 hp (150 kW), with its cylinders arranged in four rows of five cylinders apiece.^[3]

Nearly radial engines are air-cooled, simply ane of the most successful of the early on radial engines (and the earliest "stationary" blueprint produced for Globe War I combat aircraft) was the Salmson 9Z serial of nine-cylinder water-cooled radial engines that were produced in large numbers during the Beginning Globe War. Georges Canton and Pierre Unné patented the original engine design in 1909, offering it to the Salmson visitor; the engine was ofttimes known as the Canton-Unné.^[5]

From 1909 to 1919 the radial engine was overshadowed past its close relative, the rotary engine, which differed from the and so-called "stationary" radial in that the crankcase and cylinders revolved with the propeller. It was similar in concept to the later radial, the main difference being that the propeller was bolted to the engine, and the crankshaft to the airframe. The problem of the cooling of the cylinders, a major factor with the early "stationary" radials, was alleviated by the engine generating its own cooling airflow.^[half-dozen]

In Globe War I many French and other Allied aircraft flew with Gnome, Le Rhône, Clerget, and Bentley rotary engines, the ultimate examples of which reached 250 hp (190 kW) although none of those over 160 hp (120 kW) were successful. By 1917 rotary engine development was lagging backside new inline and V-blazon engines, which by 1918 were producing as much as 400 hp (300 kW), and were powering almost all of the new French and British combat aircraft.

Almost German aircraft of the time used h2o-cooled inline six-cylinder engines. Motorenfabrik Oberursel fabricated licensed copies of the Gnome and Le Rhône rotary powerplants, and Siemens-Halske congenital their own designs, including the Siemens-Halske Sh.3 eleven-cylinder rotary engine, which was unusual for the period in being geared through a bevel geartrain in the rear finish of the crankcase without the crankshaft beingness firmly mounted to the aircraft's airframe, then that the engine'south internal working components (fully internal crankshaft "floating" in its crankcase bearings, with its conrods and pistons) were spun in the opposing management to the crankcase and cylinders, which yet rotated as the propeller itself did since it was all the same firmly fastened to the crankcase's frontside, as with regular umlaufmotor German language rotaries.

By the end of the war the rotary engine had reached the limits of the design, particularly in regard to the amount of fuel and air that could be fatigued into the cylinders through the hollow crankshaft, while advances in both metallurgy and cylinder cooling finally immune stationary radial engines to supersede rotary engines. In the early on 1920s Le Rhône converted a number of their rotary engines into stationary radial engines.

By 1918 the potential advantages of air-cooled radials over the h2o-cooled inline engine and air-cooled rotary engine that had powered Earth State of war I aircraft were appreciated but were unrealized. British designers had produced the ABC Dragonfly radial in 1917, just were unable to resolve the cooling problems, and it was not until the 1920s that Bristol and Armstrong Siddeley produced reliable air-cooled radials such every bit the Bristol Jupiter^[seven] and the Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar.^{[ citation needed ]}

In the United states the National Informational Committee for Helmsmanship (NACA) noted in 1920 that air-cooled radials could offer an increase in power-to-weight ratio and reliability; past 1921 the U.S. Navy had appear it would only order aircraft fitted with air-cooled radials and other naval air arms followed adjust. Charles Lawrance'due south J-i engine was developed in 1922 with Navy funding, and using aluminum cylinders with steel liners ran for an unprecedented 300 hours, at a time when 50 hours endurance was normal. At the urging of the Army and Navy the Wright Aeronautical Corporation bought Lawrance's company, and subsequent engines were built under the Wright proper noun. The radial engines gave conviction to Navy pilots performing long-range overwater flights.^[8]

Wright's 225 hp (168 kW) J-5 Cyclone radial engine of 1925 was widely claimed every bit "the first truly reliable aircraft engine".^[9] Wright employed Giuseppe Mario Bellanca to pattern an aircraft to showcase information technology, and the result was the Wright-Bellanca WB-one, which showtime flew later that year. The J-five was used on many advanced aircraft of the day, including Charles Lindbergh'southward Spirit of St. Louis, in which he made the outset solo trans-Atlantic flight.^[10]

In 1925 the American Pratt & Whitney company was founded, competing with Wright's radial engines. Pratt & Whitney's initial offering, the R-1340 Wasp, was examination run afterward that year, beginning a line of engines over the next 25 years that included the 14-cylinder, twin-row Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp. More Twin Wasps were produced than whatsoever other aviation piston engine in the history of aviation; nearly 175,000 were built.^[11]

In the United Kingdom the Bristol Airplane Company was concentrating on developing radials such every bit the Jupiter, Mercury, and sleeve valve Hercules radials. Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union started with edifice licensed versions of the Armstrong Siddeley, Bristol, Wright, or Pratt & Whitney radials before producing their ain improved versions.^{[ citation needed ]} French republic continued its development of various rotary engines only also produced engines derived from Bristol designs, peculiarly the Jupiter.

Although other piston configurations and turboprops have taken over in modern propeller-driven aircraft, Rare Behave, which is a Grumman F8F Bearcat equipped with a Wright R-3350 Duplex-Cyclone radial engine, is still the fastest piston-powered aircraft.^{[12] [13]}

125,334 of the American twin-row, 18-cylinder Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp, with a deportation of ii,800 in³ (46 L) and between ii,000 and 2,400 hp (1,500-ane,800 kW), powered the American single-engine Vought F4U Corsair, Grumman F6F Hellcat, Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, twin-engine Martin B-26 Marauder, Douglas A-26 Invader, Northrop P-61 Black Widow, etc. The aforementioned business firm's same smaller-displacement (at 30 litres), Twin Wasp fourteen-cylinder twin-row radial was used as the principal engine pattern for the B-24 Liberator, PBY Catalina, and Douglas C-47, each design existence amongst the production leaders in all-time product numbers for each type of airframe design.

The American Wright Cyclone series twin-row radials powered American warplanes: the well-nigh-43 litre deportation, fourteen-cylinder Twin Whirlwind powered the unmarried-engine Grumman TBF Avenger, twin-engine North American B-25 Mitchell, and some versions of the Douglas A-twenty Havoc, with the massive twin-row, well-nigh 55-litre deportation, 18-cylinder Duplex-Whirlwind powering the 4-engine Boeing B-29 Superfortress and others.

The Soviet Shvetsov OKB-19 design bureau was the sole source of design for all of the Soviet government manufactory-produced radial engines used in its World War Two aircraft, starting with the Shvetsov Chiliad-25 (itself based on the American Wright Cyclone 9'south blueprint) and going on to design the 41-litre displacement Shvetsov ASh-82 14 cylinder radial for fighters, and the massive, 58-litre displacement Shvetsov ASh-73 eighteen-cylinder radial in 1946 - the smallest-displacement radial design from the Shvetsov OKB during the war was the indigenously designed, 8.six litre displacement Shvetsov M-11 five cylinder radial.

Over 28,000 of the German language 42-litre deportation, xiv-cylinder, two-row BMW 801, with between one,560 and ii,000 PS (1,540-one,970 hp, or 1,150-ane,470 kW), powered the German single-seat, single-engine Focke-Wulf Fw 190 Würger, and twin-engine Junkers Ju 88.

In Japan, most airplanes were powered by air-cooled radial engines like the 14-cylinder Mitsubishi Zuisei (11,903 units, e.one thousand. Kawasaki Ki-45), Mitsubishi Kinsei (12,228 units, due east.g. Aichi D3A), Mitsubishi Kasei (16,486 units, east.yard. Kawanishi H8K), Nakajima Sakae (30,233 units, eastward.g. Mitsubishi A6M and Nakajima Ki-43), and xviii-cylinder Nakajima Homare (9,089 units, e.g. Nakajima Ki-84). The Kawasaki Ki-61 and Yokosuka D4Y were rare examples of Japanese liquid-cooled inline engine aircraft at that time but afterward, they were also redesigned to fit radial engines as the Kawasaki Ki-100 and Yokosuka D4Y3.

In Britain, Bristol produced both sleeve valved and conventional poppet valved radials: of the sleeve valved designs, more than than 57,400 Hercules engines powered the Vickers Wellington, Short Stirling, Handley Page Halifax, and some versions of the Avro Lancaster, over 8,000 of the pioneering sleeve-valved Bristol Perseus were used in various types, and more than 2,500 of the largest-displacement production British radial from the Bristol business firm to utilize sleeve valving, the Bristol Centaurus were used to power the Hawker Tempest II and Ocean Fury. The same firm'south poppet-valved radials included: around 32,000 of Bristol Pegasus used in the Curt Sunderland, Handley Folio Hampden, and Fairey Swordfish and over twenty,000 examples of the firm's 1925-origin 9-cylinder Mercury were used to power the Westland Lysander, Bristol Blenheim, and Blackburn Skua.

Tanks [edit]

M4 cutaway. The radial engine is in rear compartment

In the years leading up to World War II, every bit the need for armored vehicles was realized, designers were faced with the trouble of how to ability the vehicles, and turned to using aircraft engines, among them radial types. The radial aircraft engines provided greater ability-to-weight ratios and were more reliable than conventional inline vehicle engines bachelor at the time. This reliance had a downside though: if the engines were mounted vertically, as in the M3 Lee and M4 Sherman, their comparatively large bore gave the tank a college silhouette than designs using inline engines.^{[ citation needed ]}

The Continental R-670, a 7-cylinder radial aero engine which first flew in 1931, became a widely used tank powerplant, being installed in the M1 Combat Automobile, M2 Light Tank, M3 Stuart, M3 Lee, and LVT-ii Water Buffalo.^{[ citation needed ]}

The Guiberson T-1020, a ix-cylinder radial diesel aero engine, was used in the M1A1E1, while the Continental R975 saw service in the M4 Sherman, M7 Priest, M18 Hellcat tank destroyer, and the M44 self propelled howitzer.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Modernistic radials [edit]

Four-stroke aircraft radial engine Scarlett mini 5

A number of companies continue to build radials today. Vedeneyev produces the Thousand-14P radial of 360–450 hp (270–340 kW) as used on Yakovlev and Sukhoi aerobatic shipping. The M-14P is also used past builders of homebuilt shipping, such every bit the Culp Special, and Culp Sopwith Pup,^[xiv] Pitts S12 "Monster" and the Spud "Moose". 110 hp (82 kW) 7-cylinder and 150 hp (110 kW) nine-cylinder engines are available from Australia's Rotec Aerosport. HCI Aviation offers the R180 v-cylinder (75 hp (56 kW)) and R220 7-cylinder (110 hp (82 kW)), available "ready to fly" and every bit a build-it-yourself kit. Verner Motor of the Czechia builds several radial engines ranging in power from 25 to 150 hp (19 to 112 kW).^[xv] Miniature radial engines for model airplanes are available from O. Southward. Engines, Saito Seisakusho of Nihon, and Shijiazhuang of China, and Evolution (designed by Wolfgang Seidel of Federal republic of germany, and made in India) and Technopower in the United states of america.^{[ citation needed ]}

Comparison with inline engines [edit]

The 1935 Monaco-Trossi race car, a rare example of automobile use.^[16]

Liquid cooling systems are generally more vulnerable to battle impairment. Fifty-fifty minor shrapnel damage can easily effect in a loss of coolant and consequent engine overheating, while an air-cooled radial engine may be largely unaffected by minor impairment.^[17] Radials have shorter and stiffer crankshafts, a unmarried-bank radial engine needing just two crankshaft bearings as opposed to the seven required for a liquid-cooled, vi-cylinder, inline engine of like stiffness.^[18]

While a single-depository financial institution radial permits all cylinders to be cooled equally, the same is not true for multi-row engines where the rear cylinders can exist affected by the rut coming off the front row, and air flow beingness masked.^[19]

A potential disadvantage of radial engines is that having the cylinders exposed to the airflow increases drag considerably. The answer was the addition of specially designed cowlings with baffles to force the air between the cylinders. The starting time effective drag-reducing cowling that didn't impair engine cooling was the British Townend ring or "elevate ring" which formed a narrow ring around the engine covering the cylinder heads, reducing elevate. The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics studied the problem, developing the NACA cowling which further reduced drag and improved cooling. Nearly all shipping radial engines since take used NACA-type cowlings.^{[Note one]}

While inline liquid-cooled engines connected to be common in new designs until late in World State of war II, radial engines dominated later until overtaken by jet engines, with the late-war Hawker Sea Fury and Grumman F8F Bearcat, two of the fastest product piston-engined aircraft ever built, using radial engines.

Hydrolock [edit]

Whenever a radial engine remains shut down for more than than a few minutes, oil or fuel may drain into the combustion chambers of the lower cylinders or accumulate in the lower intake pipes, set to exist drawn into the cylinders when the engine starts. As the piston approaches TDC of the compression stroke, this liquid, being incompressible, stops piston move. Starting or attempting to start the engine in such condition may issue in a aptitude or broken connecting rod.^[22]

Other types of radial engine [edit]

Multi-row radials [edit]

Originally radial engines had one row of cylinders, but as engine sizes increased it became necessary to add extra rows. The first radial-configuration engine known to apply a twin-row design was the 160 hp Gnôme "Double Lambda" rotary engine of 1912, designed as a 14-cylinder twin-row version of the firm's 80 hp Lambda single-row seven-cylinder rotary, however reliability and cooling problems express its success.

Two-row designs began to appear in large numbers during the 1930s, when aircraft size and weight grew to the indicate where unmarried-row engines of the required power were merely too large to be applied. Two-row designs often had cooling problems with the rear banking concern of cylinders, but a variety of baffles and fins were introduced that largely eliminated these problems. The downside was a relatively large frontal area that had to be left open to provide enough airflow, which increased drag. This led to significant arguments in the manufacture in the late 1930s about the possibility of using radials for high-speed aircraft like modernistic fighters.^{[ citation needed ]}

The solution was introduced with the BMW 801 14-cylinder twin-row radial. Kurt Tank designed a new cooling system for this engine that used a loftier-speed fan to blow compressed air into channels that carry air to the middle of the banks, where a series of baffles directed the air over all of the cylinders. This immune the cowling to be tightly fitted around the engine, reducing drag, while all the same providing (afterward a number of experiments and modifications) enough cooling air to the rear. This basic concept was soon copied past many other manufacturers, and many tardily-WWII aircraft returned to the radial design as newer and much larger designs began to be introduced.^{[ citation needed ]} Examples include the Bristol Centaurus in the Hawker Bounding main Fury, and the Shvetsov ASh-82 in the Lavochkin La-vii.^{[ citation needed ]}

For even greater power, adding further rows was not considered viable due to the difficulty of providing the required airflow to the rear banks. Larger engines were designed, mostly using water cooling although this profoundly increased complexity and eliminated some of the advantages of the radial air-cooled design. I example of this concept is the BMW 803, which never entered service.^{[ citation needed ]}

A major study^{[ which? ]} into the airflow around radials using current of air tunnels and other systems was carried out in the US, and demonstrated that ample airflow was bachelor with careful pattern. This led to the R-4360, which has 28 cylinders bundled in a 4 row corncob configuration. The R-4360 saw service on large American aircraft in the post-World State of war Ii catamenia. The United states of america and Soviet Matrimony continued experiments with larger radials, but the UK abandoned such designs in favour of newer versions of the Centaurus and rapid movement to the employ of turboprops such every bit the Armstrong Siddeley Python and Bristol Proteus, which easily produced more than power than radials without the weight or complication.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Large radials continued to exist built for other uses, although they are no longer common. An case is the v-ton Zvezda M503 diesel engine with 42 cylinders in vi rows of 7, displacing 143.six litres (8,760 cu in) and producing 3,942 hp (2,940 kW). Three of these were used on the fast Osa grade missile boats.^{[ citation needed ]} Some other one was the Lycoming XR-7755 which was the largest piston aircraft engine ever built in the United States with 36 cylinders totaling almost 7,750 in³ (127 L) of displacement and a power output of 5,000 horsepower (three,700 kilowatts).

Diesel radials [edit]

Packard DR-980 diesel radial shipping engine

While near radial engines have been produced for gasoline, there take been diesel fuel radial engines. Two major advantages favour diesel engines — lower fuel consumption and reduced burn down risk.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Packard

Packard designed and built a ix-cylinder 980 cubic inch (16.06 litre) displacement diesel radial aircraft engine, the 225 horsepower (168 kW) DR-980, in 1928. On 28 May 1931, a DR-980 powered Bellanca CH-300, with 481 gallons of fuel, piloted by Walter Edwin Lees and Frederick Brossy set a record for staying aloft for 84 hours and 32 minutes without being refueled.^[23] This tape stood for 55 years until broken by the Rutan Voyager.^[24]

Bristol

The experimental Bristol Phoenix of 1928–1932 was successfully flight tested in a Westland Wapiti and set distance records in 1934 that lasted until World War II.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Clerget

In 1932 the French company Clerget developed the 14D, a xiv-cylinder two-stroke diesel fuel radial engine. After a series of improvements, in 1938 the 14F2 model produced 520 hp (390 kW) at 1910 rpm cruise power, with a ability-to-weight ratio near that of contemporary gasoline engines and a specific fuel consumption of roughly 80% that for an equivalent gasoline engine. During WWII the enquiry connected, but no mass-product occurred because of the Nazi occupation. By 1943 the engine had grown to produce over i,000 hp (750 kW) with a turbocharger. After the state of war, the Clerget visitor was integrated in the SNECMA company and had plans for a 32-cylinder diesel engine of iv,000 hp (3,000 kW), only in 1947 the company abandoned piston engine development in favour of the emerging turbine engines.^{[ citation needed ]}

Nordberg

The Nordberg Manufacturing Visitor of the U.s. developed and produced a series of big ii-stroke radial diesel engines from the late 1940s for electrical production, primarily at aluminum smelters and for pumping water. They differed from nigh radials in that they had an even number of cylinders in a single depository financial institution (or row) and an unusual double main connecting rod. Variants were built that could be run on either diesel oil or gasoline or mixtures of both. A number of powerhouse installations utilising large numbers of these engines were fabricated in the U.S.^[25]

EMD

Electro-Motive Diesel fuel (EMD) built the "pancake" engines 16-184 and 16-338 for marine use.^[26]

Compressed air radial engines [edit]

A number of radial motors operating on compressed air have been designed, mostly for utilise in model airplanes and in gas compressors.^[27]

Model radial engines [edit]

A number of multi-cylinder four-stroke model engines have been commercially bachelor in a radial configuration, beginning with the Japanese O.S. Max firm's FR5-300 5-cylinder, three.0 cu.in. (50 cm^three) deportation "Sirius" radial in 1986. The American "Technopower" firm had made smaller-displacement five- and seven-cylinder model radial engines as early as 1976, but the Bone firm'southward engine was the outset mass-produced radial engine design in aeromodelling history. The rival Saito Seisakusho firm in Japan has since produced a similarly sized five-cylinder radial four-stroke model engine of their own as a direct rival to the OS design, with Saito besides creating a series of three-cylinder methanol and gasoline-fueled model radial engines ranging from 0.90 cu.in. (15 cmⁱⁱⁱ) to 4.l cu.in. (75 cm³) in deportation, also all now available in spark-ignition format up to 84 cmⁱⁱⁱ displacement for apply with gasoline.^[28] The High german Seidel business firm formerly fabricated both seven- and ix-cylinder "large" (starting at 35 cm³ deportation) radio command model radial engines, mostly for glow plug ignition, with an experimental fourteen-cylinder twin-row radial being tried out - the American Development house now sells the Seidel-designed radials, with their manufacturing being done in Bharat.^{[ citation needed ]}

Meet also [edit]

• Listing of shipping engines
• Swashplate engine
• Quasiturbine
• Wankel engine

Notes [edit]

1. ^ It has been claimed that the NACA cowling generated extra thrust due to the Meredith Effect, whereby the rut added to the air beingness forced through the ducts between the cylinders expanded the exhausting cooling air, producing thrust when forced through a nozzle. The Meredith effect requires high airspeed and careful pattern to generate a suitable high speed frazzle of the heated air – the NACA cowling was not designed to achieve this, nor would the effect have been significant at depression airspeeds.^[20] The effect was put to use in the radiators of several mid-1940s shipping that used liquid-cooled engines such as the Spitfire and Mustang,^[21] and it offered a small-scale improvement in subsequently radial-engined shipping, including the Fw 190.

References [edit]

1. ^ "Firing lodge: Definition from". Answers.com. 2009-02-04. Retrieved 2011-12-06 .
2. ^ "zoche aero-diesels homepage". zoche.de . Retrieved 30 May 2016.
3. ^ ^{a b} Vivian, East. Charles (1920). A History of Helmsmanship. Dayton History Books Online.
4. ^ Day, Lance; Ian McNeil (1996). Biographical Lexicon of the History of Applied science. Taylor & Francis. p. 239. ISBN0-415-06042-7.
5. ^ Lumsden 2003, p. 225.
6. ^ Nahum, Andrew (1999). The Rotary Aero Engine. NMSI Trading Ltd. ISBNane-900747-12-X.
7. ^ Gunston, Bill (1989). World Encyclopedia of Aero Engines. Cambridge, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd. pp. 29, 31 & 44. ISBNi-85260-163-9.
8. ^ Bilstein, Roger E. (2008). Flight Patterns: Trends of Aeronautical Development in the U.s., 1918–1929. University of Georgia Press. p. 26. ISBN978-0-8203-3214-vii.
9. ^ Herrmann, Dorothy (1993). Anne Morrow Lindbergh: A Gift for Life. Ticknor & Fields. p. 28. ISBN0-395-56114-0.
10. ^ "The Spirit of St. Louis". Charles Lindergh: An American Aviator, Retrieved 21 Baronial 2015.
11. ^ - Archived (November. 11, 2013) manufacturer's product page, R-1830 Retrieved: 7 February 2019
12. ^ Lewis Vintage Collection (2018), "'Rare Bear' web site.". Retrieved: 6 January 2018.
13. ^ Aerospaceweb, "Aircraft speed records." AeroSpaceWeb.org. Retrieved: 6 January 2018.
14. ^ "Aircraft". Culp Specialties. Retrieved 2013-12-22 .
15. ^ "Verner Motor range of engines". Verner Motor. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 23 Apr 2013.
16. ^ "MONACO - TROSSI mod. da competizione". museoauto.it . Retrieved 10 November 2016.
17. ^ Thurston, David B. (2000). The World's Most Significant and Magnificent Aircraft: Evolution of the Modern Airplane. SAE. p. 155. ISBN0-7680-0537-10.
18. ^ Some 6-cylinder inline engines used every bit few every bit iii bearings, but at the toll of heavier crankshafts, or crankshaft whipping.
19. ^ Fedden, A.H.R. (28 February 1929). "Air-cooled Engines in Service". Flight. XXI (9): 169–173.
20. ^ Becker, J.; The high-speed frontier: Case histories of four NACA programs, 1920- SP-445, NASA (1980), Chapter five: High-speed Cowlings, Air Inlets and Outlets, and Internal-Flow Systems: The ramjet investigation
21. ^ Toll 1977, p. 24.
22. ^ Powerplant Maintenance for Reciprocating Engines. Department of the Air Force. 1953. pp. 53–54.
23. ^ Chapter i: Evolution of the Diesel Aircraft Engine" Archived 2012-02-12 at the Wayback Machine Aircraft Engine Historical Society — Diesels p.iv Retrieved: 30 January 2009.
24. ^ Aviation Chronology Retrieved: 7 Feb 2009.
25. ^ "Nordberg Diesel Engines". OldEngine. Retrieved 2006-11-20 .
26. ^ Pearce, William (18 Baronial 2014). "General Motors / Electro-Motive sixteen-184 Diesel Engine". oldmachinepress.com . Retrieved 30 May 2016.
27. ^ "Bock radial piston compressor". Bock.de. 2009-x-19. Retrieved 2011-12-06 .
28. ^ Saito Seisakusho Worldwide E-book catalog, pages 9, 17 & 18

External links [edit]

• Cutaway radial engine in performance video on You Tube

bradenbowas1968.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial_engine

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